Table 5 Mean values of exchangeable bases (Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, and Mg²⁺), CEC, and PBS under different land use systems and elevation gradients

1.32a ± 0.25

1.22a ± 0.25

1.21a ± 0.25

1.25 ± 0.14

1.51a ± 0.25

1.20a ± 0.25

1.52a ± 0.25

1.41 ± 0.14

0.94a ± 0.25

1.44a ± 0.25

1.98a ± 0.25

1.46 ± 0.14

1.25a ± 0.14

1.29a ± 0.14

1.57a ± 0.14

1.37 ± 0.08

0.84b ± 0.38

0.55b ± 0.38

2.00a ± 0.38

1.13 ± 0.22

0.84a ± 0.38

1.65a ± 0.38

0.97a ± 0.38

1.15 ± 0.22

0.90a ± 0.38

0.76a ± 0.38

1.12a ± 0.38

0.93 ± 0.22

0.86a ± 0.22

0.99a ± 0.22

1.36a ± 0.22

1.07 ± 0.13

33.32a ± 6.80

42.10a ± 6.80

39.04a ± 6.80

38.15 ± 3.93

28.82a ± 6.80

33.45a ± 6.80

39.90a ± 6.80

34.09 ± 3.93

51.97a ± 6.80

40.00a ± 6.80

41.2a ± 6.80

40.85 ± 3.93

34.48a ± 3.93

38.53a ± 3.93

40.07a ± 3.93

37.70 ± 2.27

13.28a ± 2.53

15.93a ± 2.53

11.05a ± 2.53

13.42 ± 1.46

10.41a ± 2.53

13.87a ± 2.53

14.40a ± 2.53

12.89 ± 1.46

21.42a ± 2.53

13.96a ± 2.53

13.21a ± 2.53

14.45 ± 1.46

13.30a ± 1.46

14.59a ± 1.46

12.89a ± 1.46

13.59 ± 0.84

63.95a ± 7.00

69.86a ± 7.00

69.10a ± 7.00

67.63 ± 4.04

59.62b ± 7.00

66.17ab ± 7.00

72.71a ± 7.00

66.17 ± 4.04

74.04a ± 7.00

69.08a ± 7.00

80.43a ± 7.00

74.52 ± 4.04

65.87a ± 4.04

68.37a ± 4.04

74.07a ± 4.04

69.44 ± 2.33

74.97a ± 8.11

82.23a ± 8.11

77.00a ± 8.11

78.06 ± 4.68

70.23a ± 8.11

75.17a ± 8.11

78.43a ± 8.11

74.61 ± 4.68

78.03a ± 8.11

79.27a ± 8.11

72.93a ± 8.11

76.76 ± 4.68

74.13a ± 4.68

78.89a ± 4.68

86.12a ± 4.68

76.48 ± 2.70

2.22 ± 0.43

1.84 ± 0.43

1.73 ± 0.43

1.93 ± 0.25

2.63 ± 0.43

1.86 ± 0.43

2.09 ± 0.43

2.19 ± 0.25

1.21 ± 0.43

2.11 ± 0.43

2.54 ± 0.43

1.95 ± 0.25

2.02 ± 0.25

1.94 ± 0.25

2.12 ± 0.25

2.03 ± 0.14